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    Title: 半總統制新興民主國家的制度設計與政治穩定:蒙古及波蘭的比較分析
    Authors: 王維芳
    Wei-fang Wang
    Contributors: 吳玉山
    Yu-shan Wu
    王維芳
    Wei-fang Wang
    Keywords: 半總統制
    政治穩定
    蒙古
    波蘭
    Date: 2002
    Issue Date: 2009-09-18 10:09:02 (UTC+8)
    Abstract: 摘          要

    本論文從府會關係、總統權力、國會政黨體系,以及內閣組成型態等四個影響半總統制的結構性因素,搭建兩層分析架構,藉此探討並比較蒙古及波蘭兩個後共產國家在採行半總統制的設計之後,所呈現的政治穩定狀況,並以內閣平均任期作為檢驗政治穩定的標準。經以本論文分析架構比較蒙古及波蘭案例後,再以原架構分析中華民國,以期從中建立一個可以依循的分析通則,並提出一個較佳的半總統制設計,作為新興民主國家制度設計之時的參考。



    關鍵詞:半總統制、政治穩定、蒙古、波蘭
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    1995,“Political Reform in Mongolia: Between Russia and China,”Asian Survey, Vol.35, No.5 (May), pp.459-471。
    1997,“Mongolia in 1996-Fighting Fire and Ice,”Asian Survey, Vol.37, No.1 (January), pp.60-64。
    1998,“Mongolia in 1997: Deepening Democracy,”Asian Survey, Vol.38, No.1 (January), pp.64-68。
    Goyal, Hari D.
    1999,“A Development Perspective on Mongolia,”Asian Survey, Vol.39, No.4 (July/August), pp.633-655。
    Gunther, Richard
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    Harper, Marcus A.G.
    2000,“Economic Voting in Postcommunist Eastern Europe,”Comparative Political Studies, Vol.33, No.9 (November), pp.1191-1227。
    Higley, John, Judith Kullberg, & Jan Pakulski
    1996,“The Persistence of Postcommunist Elites,”Journal of Democracy, Vol.7, No.2 (April), pp.135-147。
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    1998, Postcommunist Elites and Democracy in Eastern Europe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.)。
    Horowitz, Donald L.
    1990,“Comparing Democratic Systems”, Journal of Democracy, Vol.1, No.4 ( Fall), pp.71-79。
    Hsieh, John Fuh-sheng
    1996,“The SNTV System and Its Political Implications,”in Hung-mao Tien ed., Taiwan’s Electoral Politics and Democratic Transition (Aymonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe), pp.193-212。
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    Hurwitz, Leon
    1971,“An Index of Democratic Political Stability: A Methodological Note,”Comparative Political Studies, Vol.4, No.1 (April), pp.41-68。
    Ishiyama, John T. & Matthew Velten
    1998,“Presidential Power and Democratic Development in Post-Communist Politics,”Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol.31, No.3 (September), pp.217-233。
    Jasiewicz, Krzysztof
    1993,“Structures of Representation,”in Stephen White, Judy Batt & Paul G. Lewis, eds., Developments in East European Politics, pp.124-146
    1997,“Poland: Walesa’s Legacy to the Presidency,”in Ray Taras, ed., Postcommunist Presidents, pp.130-167。
    2000,“Dead Ends and New Beginnings: The Quest for a Procedural Republic in Poland,”Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 33, No.1 (March), pp.101-122。
    Kitschelt, Herbert Zdenka Mansfeldova, Radoslaw Markowski, Gabor Toka
    1999, Post-communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-party Cooperation ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)。
    Kubiak, Hieronim
    1998,“Genius Loci and Voting Behavior,”Polish Sociological Review, 4(124), pp.357-373。
    Kuusela, Kimmo
    1994,“The Founding Electoral Systems in Eastern Europe, 1989-91,”Geoffrey Pridham and Tatu Vanhanen eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives (New York: Routledge), pp.128-150。
    Lijphart, Arend
    1991,“Constitutional Choices for New Democracies,”Journal of Democracy, Vol.2, No.1 (Winter), pp.72-84。
    1994, Electoral Systems and Party Systems (Oxford: Oxford University Press)。
    Lin, Chia-lung
    1998, Paths to Democracy: Taiwan in Comparative Perspective (Ph.D. Dissertation of Political Science, Yale University) 。
    Lin, Jih-wen
    1996, Consequences of the Single Nontransferable Voting Rule: Comparing the Japan and Taiwan Experiences (Ph. D. Dissertation, Los Angeles: Department of Political Science, University of California) 。
    Linz, Juan J.
    1990.“The Perils of Presidentialism”, Journal of Democracy ,Vol.1, No.1 (Winter), pp.51-69。
    1994,“Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference?”in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy: Comparative Perspectives( Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), pp. 33-87。
    1997,“Introduction: Some Thoughts on Presidentialism in Postcommunist Europe,” in Ray Taras, ed., Post Communist Presidents, pp.1-14。
    Linz, Juan J. & Alfred Stepan
    1996, Problem of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press)。
    Lipset, Seymour Martin
    1990 “The Centrality of Political Culture,”Journal of Democracy, Vol.1, No.3 (Summer), pp.48-60。
    Mainwaring, Scott
    1993,“Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy: The Difficult Combination.”Comparative Political Studies, Vol.26, N0.2 (July), pp.198-228。
    March,J. G. andJ. P. Olson
    1984,“New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life,” American Political Science Review, Vol.78, No.3 (September), pp.734-749。
    Markowski, Radoslaw
    2000,“Party System Institutionalization and Democratic Consolidation: on the Idiosyncrasies of the Polish Case,”Janina Frentzel-Zagorska, Jacek Wasilewski, ed., The Second Generation of Democratic Elites in Central and Eastern Europe (Warsaw: Institute of Political Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences), pp.65-89。
    Mettenheim, Kurt von & Bert A. Rockman
    1997,“Presidential Institutions, Democracy, and Comparative Politics,”in Kurt von Mettenheim, ed., Presidential Institutions and Democratic Politics: Comparing Regional and National Contexts, pp.237-246。
    Moser, Robert G.
    1999,“Electoral Systems and the Number of Parties in Postcommunist States,”World Politics, No.51 (April), pp.359-384。
    National Statistical Office of Mongolia
    1998, Mongolian Statistical Yearbook 1997 (Ulaanbaatar: National Statistical Office of Mongolia)。
    2001, Mongolian Statistical Yearbook 2000 ( Ulaanbaatar: National Statistical Office of Mongolia)。
    Niklasson, Tomas
    1994,“The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, 1988-9: Interactions between Domestic Change and Foreign Policy,”Geoffrey Pridham and Tatu Vanhanen eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives, pp.191-219。
    Pacek, Alexander C.
    1994,“Macroeconomic Conditions and Electoral Politics in East Central Europe,”American Journal of Political Science, Vol.38, No.3 (August), pp.723-744。
    Parrish, Scott
    1998,“Presidential Decree Authority in Russia, 1991-95,”in John M. Carey and Matthew Shugart, Soberg ed., Executive Decree Authority (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp.62-103。
    Powers, Denise V. & James H. Cox
    1997,“ Echoes from the Past: The Relationship between Satisfaction with Economic Reforms and Voting Behavior in Poland,”American Political Science Review, Vol.91, No.3 (September), pp.617-633。
    Rae, Douglas W.
    1971, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven: Yale University Press) 。
    Riker, William H.
    1982,“The Two-Party System and Duverger’s Law: An Essay on the History of Political Science,”American Political Science Review, Vol.76, No.4 (December), pp.753-766。
    Rossabi , Morris
    2000,“Mongolia: A Peaceful Transition,”《蒙古民族與周邊民族關係》學術會議論文集(台北:蒙藏委員會),頁81-153。
    Rose, Amanda
    1999,“Extraordinary Politics in the Polish Transition,”Communist and Post-communist Studies, No.32, pp.195-210。
    Sanders, Alan J.K.
    1992,“Mongolia’s New Constitution,”Asian Survey, Vol.32, No.6 (June), pp.506-520。
    Sanford, George
    1999, Poland: The Conquest of History (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers)。
    Sartori, Giovanni
    1976, Parties and Party Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)。
    1997, Comparative Constitutional Engineering: An Inquiry into Structures, Incentives and Outcomes (New York: New York University Press)。
    Severinghaus, Sheldon R.
    1995,“Mongolia in 1994-Strenthening Democracy,” Asian Survey, Vol.35, No.1 (January), pp.70-75。
    Shugart, Matthew Soberg
    1996,“Executive-Legislative Relations in Post-Communist Europe,”Transition, Vol.2, No.25 (December), pp.6-11。
    Shugart, Matthew Soberg and John Carey
    1992, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)。
    Shugart, Matthew Soberg & Rein Taagpera
    1994,“Plurality versus Majority Election of Presidents: A Proposal for A‘Double Complement Rule’,”Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27, No.3, pp.323-348。
    Slay, Ben
    2000,“The Polish Economic Transition: Outcome and Lessons,”Communist and Post-communist Studies, Vol.33, No.1 (March), pp.49-70。
    Smolar, Aleksander
    1998,“Poland’s Emerging Party System,”Journal of Democracy, Vol.9, No.2 (April), pp.122-133。
    Stepan, Alfred and Cindy Skach
    1993,“Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism,”World Politics, No.46 (October), pp.1-22。
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    1989, Seats and Votes: The Effects and Determinants of Electoral Systems (New Haven & London: Yale University Press)。
    Taras, Raymond
    1995, Consolidating Democracy in Poland (Boulder: Westview Press)。
    1997,“Separating Power: Keeping Presidents in Check,”in Ray Taras, ed., Postcommunist Presidents, pp.15-37。
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    1996, Business Guide to Mongolia (Hong Kong: Asia Information Associates Limited)。
    Tworzecki, Hubert
    1996, Parties and Politics in Post-1989 Poland (Boulder: Westview Press, )。
    Wu, Yu-shan
    1998, “Comparing Semi-Presidentialism in the ROC and the Russian Federation,” Chinese Political Science Review, No.30 (December), pp. 123-186。
    2000,“Comparing Third-Wave Democracies: East Central Europe and the ROC,”Issues & Studies, Vol.37, No.4 (July/August), pp.1-37。
    Zukrowska, Katarzyna
    1995,“Poland: Changes for the Better,”Bogdan Goralczyk, Wojciech Kostecki, Katarzyna Zukrowska, In Pursuit of Europe: Transformations of Post-Communist States1989-1994 (Warsaw: The Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences), pp.67-79。
    三、 其他
    (一) 報紙
    Onoodor(今日報,烏蘭巴托),February 24, 2000, p.2。
    “The Government or the Hunger-strikers,”The Mongol Messenger, April 19, 1994, pp.1-2。
    “The Hunger Strike Comes to An End,”The Mongol Messenger, April 26, 1994, p.1。
    “Finance Minister Resigns,”The Mongol Messenger, January 20, 1995, p.1。
    “Election Laws Amended,”The Mongol Messenger, March 20, 1996, p.3。
    “Prime Minister and Government Resign,”The Mongol Messenger, April 22, 1998, p.1。
    “Elbegdorj Sworn in as 16th Prime Minister,”The Mongol Messenger, April 29, 1998, p.1。
    “Parliament Approves Five Minister; Four Denied,”The Mongol Messenger, May 6, 1998, p.3。
    “Two More Ministers Added to Cabinet,”The Mongol Messenger, May 13, 1998, p.1。
    “Defence Minister Added to Elbegdorj’s Line-up,”The Mongol Messenger, May 27, 1998, p.1。
    “Cabinet Ministers Not Formed Again,”The Mongol Messenger, December 30, 1998, p.1。
    “Five Ministers Down, Four to Go,”The Mongol Messenger, January 13, 1999, p.1。
    “Third Coalition Gov’t Ousted,”The Mongol Messenger, July 28, 1999, p.1、p.3。
    “Amarjargal Likes His Acting Cabinet,”The Mongol Messenger, September 1, 1999, p.1。
    “Gov’t Drops Acting Status,”The Mongol Messenger, September 8, 1999, p.1。
    “First Constitution Amendments,”The Mongol Messenger, December 29, 1999, p.1。
    “Bagabandi Vetos Constitutional Amendments,”The Mongol Messenger, January 5, 2000, p.1。
    “Parliament Topples Presidential Veto on Amendments,”The Mongol Messenger, January 12, 2000, p.1。
    “Parties Are Anxious about System to Apply for the Election,”The Mongol Messenger , February 16, 2000, p.3。
    “Constitutional Court Stamp of Disapproval,”The Mongol Messenger, March 22, 2000, pp.1-2。
    “Party for Civil Will Registered,”The Mongol Messenger, March 29, 2000, p.2。
    “Election Set for July 2,”The Mongol Messenger, April 19, 2000, p.3。
    “Elections: Great Expectations and Ambitions for Candidates,”The Mongol Messenger, May 31, 2000, p.1。
    “Sant Maral Opinion Poll, May 2000,”The Mongol Messenger, July 21, 2000, p.4。
    “MPRP Won Big with Half of Popular Vote,”The Mongol Messenger, July 26, 2000, p.2。
    “Democrats under One Flag,”The Mongol Messenger, October 4, 2000, p.1。
    “Sant Maral Politbarometer, November 2000,”The Mongol Messenger, December 6, 2000, p.5。
    “Bland 23rd Congress for MPRP,”The Mongol Messenger, March 7, 2001, pp.1-2。
    “Bagabandi to Run for President,”The Mongol Messenger, March 28, 2001, p.1。
    “Voting Intention in March 2001,”The Mongol Messenger, April 4, 2001, p.5
    “Constitutional Court Wrangling Ends,”The Mongol Messenger, June 6, 2001, p.3。
    “Mongolia’s Diverse Ethnic Groups Investigated,”The Mongol Messenger, August 22, 2001, p.7。
    “CWP and RP Merger Completed with a Call to Arms,”The Mongol Messenger, February 27, 2002, p.1。
    “What is the Best Election Structure for Mongolia,”The Mongol Messenger, April 3, 2002, p.1、p.5。
    “ADB Says Mongolian Economy May Increase to 4.9 in 2003,”The Mongol Messenger, April 17, 2002, p.5。
    “Voting Intention April 2002,”The Mongol Messenger, April 24, 2002, p.5。
    “MPRP Responds to Democratic Party Demands,”The Mongol Messenger, May 8, 2002, p.3。
    The UB Post, July 7, 1998, p.1。
    (二) 網路資料
    中文網站
    經濟部網站
    <http://www.moea.gov.tw>( 2003/2/24下載)。
    英文網站
    1. BBC News Online
    “Poland’s Economic Challenge,”<http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/English/business/newsid_1556000/1556641.stm>(accessed on September 21, 2001)。
    2. Central Europe Review
    “Heating up for the Presidency,”<http://www.ce-review.org>, Vol.2, No.10, (accessed on March 13, 2000)。
    “Reshufflings on the Right,”<http://www.ce-review.org/01/13/kosc/3.html>, Vol.3, No.13, (accessed on April 2001)。
    3. CNN
    “Mongolia Gets Moscow-Educated Economist as New Prime Ministers,”<http://customnews.cnn.com>(accessed on July 30, 1999)。
    4. Elections around the World
    “Elections in Poland,”<http://www.electionworld.org/election/Poland.htm>(accessed on June 26, 2003)
    5. Freedom House
    <http://www.freedomhouse.org/ratings/monaco.htm>(accessed on April 23, 2002)。
    <http://www.freedomhouse.org/ratings/phil.htm>(accessed on April 23, 2002)。
    “Nations in Transit 2001- Poland Country Report,”<http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/nitransit/2001/country/18_poland.htm>(accessed on April 23, 2002)。
    6. Montsame
    “MPRP is to raise proposal for Parliament Dissolution,”<http://www.mol.mn/montsame/news/english/Thursday.htm>(accessed on September 17, 1998)。
    “MPRP Submits Drafts Resolution on Referendum to Speaker,”<http://www.mol.mn/montsame/news/english/Monday.htm>(accessed on September 25, 1998)。
    “Ts. Elbegdorj: Can’t Decide PM’s Problem in Current Legal Condition,”<http://www.mol.mn/montsame/news/english/Monday/htm >(accessed on November 2, 1998)。
    “At Long Last, Mongolia has a New Prime Minister,”<http://www.mol.mn/argamag/ub_post/main.htm>(accessed on December 15, 1998)。
    “Government of J. Narantsatsralt Resigned,”<http://www.mol.mn/montsame/news/english/friday,htm>(accessed on July 23, 1999)。
    7. Mongoliathisweek Online Newspaper
    <http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on April 21-27, 2000)。
    “R. Gonchigdorj Appears to Have Won Democratic Party Nomination, But Not without Allegations of Foul Play,”<http://www/mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed March 6, 2001)。
    “Gonchigdorj Nominated as DP Presidential Election Candidate,”<http://www/mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on March 10, 2001)。
    “MPRP Unanimously Nomanates N. Bagabandi, PCW Decision Expected,”<http://www/mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on March 27, 2001)。
    “Party of Civic Will Nominates L. Dashnyam for President,”<http://www/mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on March 28, 2001)。
    “Ikh Khural Approves New Law on Ikh Khural,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on June 22, 2001)。
    “Opposition Uses Rare Chance to Speak,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on July 10, 2001)。
    “A New Political Force to Emerge,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn> (accessed on October 27-29, 2001)。
    “Third Force? Gathering Strength,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on March 28, 2002)。
    “Mongolia Seeking Advice to Improve Election Law,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on March 29, 2002)。
    “DP Taking its Protest to People,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on April 10, 2002)。
    “Last Year’s Growth 1.1%,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on April 23, 2002)。
    “Opposition Voice Drowned,”<http://www.mongoliathisweek.mn>(accessed on July 3, 2002)。
    8. Poland Today
    “Polish Parliamentary Election Process,”<http:www.europeaninternet.com/poland>(accessed on September 24, 2001)。
    “Anti-European Parties Poised to Slow Poland’s EU Bid,”<http://www.europeaninternet.com/poland>(accessed on September 24, 2001)。
    “Former Polish Communist Short of Majority, Begin Coalition Hunt,”<http:www.europeaninternet.com/poland>(accessed on September 26, 2001)。
    “Former Polish Communist Begin Coalition Talks to Form Government,,”<http:www.europeaninternet.com/poland>(accessed on September 27, 2001)。
    “Former Poland’s Communists Fail to Win Majority,”<http:www.europeaninternet.com/poland>(accessed on September 28, 2001)。
    9. President of the Republic of Poland
    “Presidential Election Returns-2000,”<http://www.president.pl/pol/en_elections.phps>(accessed on June 2003)。
    10. RFE/RL Newsline
    “Polish Ruling Coalition Collapses,”<http://www.rferl.org/newsline/2003/03/05/Not./not-030303.asp>(accessed on March 3, 2003)。
    11. Soros Foundation
    Rossabi, Morris
    “Mongolia in the 1990s: from Commissars to Capitalists?”<http://www.soros.org/mongolia/rossabi.html>(accessed on August 1, 1998)。
    12. The IHT Online
    “In Frustrated Poland, Ex-Communists Set Their Sights on Power,”<http://www.iht.com/articles/33410.html>(accessed on September 22, 2001)。
    13. Warsaw voice
    “On a Diet of Worms,”No.49, <http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on December 6, 1998)。
    “Fool’s Day High Noon,”No.8, <http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on February 21, 1999)。
    “Coalition Plays Musical Chairs,”No.13,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on March 28, 1999)。
    “Unpopular Fronts,”No.14,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on April 4, 1999)。
    “Buzek’s Two-Week Breather,”No.38,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on September 19, 1999)。
    “More Internal Bleeding,”No.39,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on September 26, 1999)。
    “Crowd to Buzek: Go Peacefully, But Go,”No.40,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on October 3, 1999)。
    “Old Government, New Beginning,”No.40,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on October 3, 1999)。
    “UW Backs Out,”No.24,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>(accessed on June 11, 2000)。
    “Minority Government Makes a Start,”No.25,<http://www.warsawvoice.pl>)accessed on June 18, 2000)。
    “Running for Presidency,”<http://www.thepolishvoice.pl>(accessed on September, 2000)。
    “New Election Law Signed,”No.8,<http://www.warsavoice.pl>(accessed on April, 2001)。
    14. World Bank
    <http://www.worldbank.org.mn>(accessed on May 13, 2002)。
    Description: 博士
    國立政治大學
    中山人文社會科學研究所
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