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| Title: | 探討網路近用權作為國際人權法之新興權利之地位與發展
The Emergence of the Right to Internet Access: An Analysis of its Status as a New Human Right in International Law |
| Authors: | 俞亞廷
Yue, Ya-Ting |
| Contributors: | 許耀明
Hsu, Yao-Ming
俞亞廷
Yue, Ya-Ting |
| Keywords: | 國際人權法
網路近用權
網路近用
International Human Rights Law
Human Rights
Human Dignity
Right to Internet Access
Internet Access |
| Date: | 2023 |
| Issue Date: | 2023-08-02 13:55:02 (UTC+8) |
| Abstract: | 聯合國人權委員會的特別報告員Frank La Rue在2011年曾提交「增進和保護見解與言論自由權問題」（report on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression）之報告，其中，特別報告員不僅強調網路對於實現各項人權之重要性，亦認定網路近權應屬於《公民與政治權利公約》第19(2)條言論自由權。此外，聯合國大會於2016年《關於促進、保護以及享受網路人權》之決議中，強調應以人權作為基礎，從而建立一個可近用之網路。
這兩項文件之論述之共同點是均將網路近用權視作一項附屬於言論自由權之權利，然而新型冠狀病毒（COVID-19）迫使人們透過網路繼續日常生活時，彰顯了網路逐漸成為個人基本需求的狀態，同時展現缺乏網路近用（Internet access）者在教育、工作、健康等方面保障之缺失。基於此本文旨在探討網路近用是否得成為國際人權法架構下的一項獨立人權，從而保障個人得透過網路行使其他受到國際人權法所保障之權利。
本論文嘗試透過現有之相關資料以釐清網路近用權是否可以成為國際人權法框架之下新興人權。是以，本論文將對於人權概念進行分析，再進一步根據相關之學說見解建立認定新興人權所需之要件。本論文為分析新興人權產生之過程，將以水權作為案例進行分析，從而觀察國際人權法對於新權利之認定是否與本論文建立之架構相符。此外，由於臺灣政府在2017年已經聲明網路近用權應為一項人權，本論文將進一步檢視臺灣在保障該權利所採取之相關政策是否符合國際人權法之規定。
The question of whether Internet access should be recognized as an independent human right in line with the principles of international human rights law is examined in this paper.
In 2011, the Special Rapporteur Frank La Rue issued a report on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in which he stated that “the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human rights, combating inequality, and accelerating development and human progress ensuring universal access to the Internet should be a priority for all states.” Further, in 2016, the United Nations General Assembly underlined in the resolution on the promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the Internet that in order to provide an open, accessible and nurtured Internet, a human-based approach should be applied. Though none of the current international human rights instruments have explicitly recognized an actual right to Internet access, many states, as well as scholars, have agreed that the aforementioned materials proved the existence of a right to Internet access.
Such recognition, however, was regarded the Internet access as a medium under the right to freedom of opinion and expression, rather than an independent human right. As the Internet permeates every aspect of our daily-life, Internet access has gradually become a prerequisite to exercise human rights, especially during the pandemic, when everyone was forced to continued their life via the Internet. Accordingly, this paper decided to assess whether the right to Internet access can be established as an autonomous human right.
In order to explore whether Internet access can be regarded as a human right, it is necessary to clarify the definition of the term “human rights” in advance. However, due to the complex and multifaceted nature of human rights, it is difficult to reach a consensus on its definition as it involves difference fields, such as philosophy, politics, and law. Hence, instead of giving a definition of human rights, this paper decides to conceptualize it. Through the conceptualization of the idea of human rights through its moral and political roots, ultimately concluded that such term refers to rights that are based on human dignity.
Further, while this paper delves into the evolution of international human rights law, the ever-changing nature of international law was acknowledged. Further, this paper explored models and approaches for the emergence of new human rights and concluded a three-phase approach. According to the three-phase approach, the recognition of a new human right needs to go through three phases: (1) human rights activists or scholars advocate for the recognition of a new human right, (2) the new human right achieved the “full recognition”, and (3) this new human right presents a binding force upon states. In order to justify the three-phase approach, this paper further used the right to water as an exemplar.
Moreover, concerning the right to Internet access, in accordance with relevant materials, this paper discovered that the recognition of the right to Internet access is in-progress. The recognition of the right to Internet access not only on a national level but also on a regional level. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of Internet access for the realization and implementation of other human rights, which makes Internet access more than just a medium under the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Recently, the United Nations human rights commissioners have resonated the idea of establishing the right to Internet access as an independent human right, which further justifies the importance of recognizing it.
The Republic of China (“Taiwan”) is widely known for being a proactive nation that is committed to the principles of international human rights. With regards to the right to Internet access, Taiwan recognized it as a fundamental human right as early as in 2017. In order to promote and protect the right to Internet access, Taiwan has implemented various policies and programs to ensure that every citizen and foreign visitors has access to an open Internet with sufficient infrastructure. As a result of the digitalization of the government and the high Internet penetration rate, Taiwan was able to swiftly respond to the COVID-19 pandemic while ensuring that the human rights of every individual were not affected.
In conclusion, Taiwan might set a positive example for other nations, with the ever-increasing importance of the Internet in our daily lives, it is crucial for every individual to have access to the Internet. as the recognition to the right to Internet access continues to gain momentum globally, this paper hopes that it will soon be recognized as an autonomous human right at the international level, ensuring that everyone can enjoy the same human rights online and offline. |
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4. Legislation
(1) Article 27(1)(b) of S. AFR. CONST., 1996.
(2) Congress, U.S. (2015) Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act of 2015m Bills, S, 754.
(3) 393/2003 Communications Market Act (amendment to up 363/2011), sec.60 c (Finland).
(4) 1975 Syntagma [Syn.] [Constitution] 5a (Greece).
(5) Organization of African Unity, African Charter on Human Rights and People’s Rights, Article 9 (1982).
5. Cases
Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar, (1991) SCC 420, 424 (India).
Ahmet Yıldırım v. Turkey, European Court of Human Rights, Case no. 3111/10, Judgment, 18 December 2012.
Amnesty International Togo and Others v. The Togolese Republic, Case no. ECW/CCJ/APP/61/18, ECOWAS ,6 July 2020.
The Registered Trusties of the Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP) and Others v. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Case no. ECW/CCJ/JUD/40/22, Judgment, ECOWAS ,14 July 2022.
Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India, (2020) 3 SCC 3 (India).
Cengiz and Others v. Turkey, European Court of Human Rights, Case no.48226/10 and 14027/11, Judgment,1 December 2015.
Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC-5/85, 13 November 1985.
Faheema Shirin RK v. State of Kerala, 2020 AIR (Ker.) 13 (India).
Golder v. United Kingdom, European Court of Human Rights, Case no. 4451/70, Judgment,21 February 1975.
Kalda v. Estonia, European Court of Human Rights, Case no. 17429/10, Judgment, 19 January 2016.
Kablis v. Russia, European Court of Human Rights, Case no.48310/16 and 59663/1, Judgment, 30 April 2019.
Mazibuko and Others v. City of Johannesburg and others, 2009 (CCT 39/09) ZACC 28.
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. v. Turkey, European Court of Human Rights, Case no. 25479/19, Judgment, 24 March 2022.
Valdelomar and Sibaja v. Costa Rican Superintendence of Telecommunications, (2017) Supreme Court of Final Appeal, Exp., 17-000191-007-CO, 1(Costa Rica).
6. Conventions and Treaties
Charter of United Nations, 24 Oct., 1045, 1 U.N.T.S. XVI.
Statute of the International Court of Justice, 18 April, 1946, 33 U.N.T.S. 993.
Vienna Convention on the Laws of Treaties, 22 May, 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S 331.
International Covenant on Civil and Politi cal Rights, 16 Dec., 1996, 999 U.N.T.S. 171.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 Dec., 1996, 993 U.N.T.S. 3.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 Nov., 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 18 Dec., 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec.10, 1948).
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 11 July 1990, OAU, Doc. CAB/LEG/24.9/49.
The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, 1 July 2003, available at: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/ProtocolontheRightsofWomen.pdf.
7. UN Documents
G.A. Res 40/171, UN Doc A/RES/40/171, Item 12 (17 December 1985).
G.A. Res 40/171, UN Doc A/RES/40/171, Item 12 (17 December 1985).
G.A. Res. 56/183, U.N. Doc. A/RES/56/183 (31 January 2002).
G.A. Res. 68/167 (18 December 2013) U.N. Doc. A/RES/68/167; UNGA Res. 69/166 (18 December 2014) U.N. Doc. A/RES/69/166.
G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec.10, 1948).
UNGA, Report by Group of Governmental Experts on Development in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security, A/68/98, U.N. Doc. A/70/174 (22 July 2015).
United Nations, Commission of the Commission on Human Rights, Summary Record of the Twelfth Meeting, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/SR.12, 5 (1947).
U.N., Econ. & Soc. Council, General Comment No. 14: The Right to the highest attainable standard of health (Art.12), UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), ¶ 78(27 May 2008).
U.N., Econ. & Soc. Council, General Comment No. 4: The Right to adequate housing (Art.11 par. 1), UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), ¶ 8(b) (13 Dec. 1991).
United Nations Sub-commission on Prevention of Discrimination and protection of Minorities, Human Rights and the Environment: Second Progress Report, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/7, 36(1993).
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, ch. I principle 1, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1 (Jan. 1, 1973).
The United Nations Water Conference, Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, 11, U.N. Doc. E/CONF.70/29 (March 25, 1977) (‘Mar del Plata Action Plan’).
International Law Association London Conference, Final Report of the Committee on the Formation of Customary International Law: Statement of Principles Applicable of General Customary International Law, ¶2 (2000).
Int’l Law Comm’n, Formation and Evidence of Customary International Law: Elements in the Previous Work of the International Law Commission that Could Be Particularly Relevant to the Topic, UN Doc. A/CN.4/659 (14 Mar. 2013).
Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development adopted at the International Conference on Water and the Environment, Dublin, Ireland, principle 4(31 Jan. 1992).
Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, Concluding Observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Israel, UN Doc. E/C.12/1/Add.27 (4 Dec. 1998).
Human Rights Council, Res. 15/9, U.N. Doc. A/RES/64/292 (August 3, 2010).
UNESCO, Res. 4/19, Recs. of the General Conference, 21st Sess., Vol.1, adopted Sep. 23- Oct. 28, 1980.
World Summit on the Information Society, Tunis Agenda for the Information Society, ¶35, U.N. Doc. WSIS-05/TUNIS/DOC/6(Rec.1)-E, 2005.
The United Nations Administrative Committee on Coordination, Statement on Universal Access to Basic Communication and Information Services (1997).
UNHRC Res. A/HRC/RES/20/8 (16 July 2012).
UNHRC Res. A/HRC/RES/26/13 (14 July 2014).
UNHRC Res. A/HRC/RES/32/13 (18 July 2016).
Frank La Rue (Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression), U.N. Doc. A/HRC/17/27 (May 2011).
UNHRC, Res. A/HRC/32/L.20, U.N. Doc. A/HRC/20/L.13 (June 2012).
HRC, General Comment No.34: Article 19: Freedoms of Opinion and Expression, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/G/34 (12 Sep. 2011).
HRC, General Comment No. 26: Continuity of Obligations, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/Rev.1/Add.8 (Dec. 8, 1997).
HRC, Comments of the Human Rights Committee: Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/79 Add.14 (Dec.28, 1992).
8. Online Sources
Ted X Talks, Why do People Oppose Every Government Policy? Reflections of an Official(為什麼民眾反對政府的每個政策？一個官員的反思), YouTube (Dec. 30, 2015), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UtxgzPhrlDM.
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Audrey Tang, Inside Taiwan’s New Digital Democracy (Mar. 12, 2019), https://www.economist.com/open-future/2019/03/12/inside-taiwans-new-digital-democracy.
African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms, https://africaninternetrights.org/sites/default/files/African-Declaration-English-FINAL.pdf (last visited April 18, 2023).
BBC News, Internet “wake-up call” (October 28, 1999), http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/490583.stm.
BBC News, How Internet Access is Improving in Nigeria (20 Feb. 2020), https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51377955.
Chris Wang and Shih Hsiu-chuan, Cabinet as Pulled from YouTube, Taipei Times, (Oct. 18, 2012), https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2012/10/18/2003545458.
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9. Miscellaneous
Commission of the European Communities, Illegal and harmful content on the Internet, 8(1996).
International Telecommunications Union, World Telecommunication Development Report: Universal Access, 1 (1998). |
| Description: | 碩士
國立政治大學
法律學系
109651046 |
| Source URI: | http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0109651046 |
| Data Type: | thesis |
| Appears in Collections: | [法律學系] 學位論文
|
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| 104601.pdf | | 1474Kb | Adobe PDF2 | 80 | View/Open |
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